Biofuels Refining and Performance

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Biofuels Refining and Performance

Biofuels Refining and Performance

Authors: Ahindra Nag

Published: December 2007

eISBN: 9780071594783 0071594787 | ISBN: 9780071489706

Contents

Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1. Energy and Its Biological Resources

1.1 Energy (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow)

1.2 Energy

1.2.1 Thermodynamics

1.3 Energy-Dependent Ecosystems

1.3.1 Photosynthetic factors

1.4 Bioenergy

1.5 Biological Energetics

1.6 Chemical Cell

1.7 Models of Bioenergy Cells

1.7.1 Oxidative phosphorylation path

1.7.2 Photosynthetic path

1.8 A Living Cell Is an Ideal Cell

1.9 Plant Cells Are Unique

1.9.1 Photosynthetic bacteria

1.10 Biofuels

1.10.1 Heterocystous blue-green algae (example, Anabaena cylindrica)

1.10.2 Photofermentation by photosynthetic bacteria (example, Rhodospirillium rubrum)

1.10.3 Methane production

1.11 Plant Hydrocarbons

1.12 Biogas

1.13 Gobargas

1.14 Biomass, Gasification, and Pyrolysis

1.14.1 Biomass

1.14.2 Gasification and pyrolysis

1.15 Bioluminescence

1.16 Hydrogen

1.16.1 Microbial conversion

References

Chapter 2. Photosynthetic Plants as Renewable Energy Sources

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Mechanism and Efficiency of Photosynthesis in Plants

2.3 Photosynthetic Process

2.3.1 Hill reaction (light reaction)

2.3.2 Blackman's reaction (dark reaction)

2.3.3 Efficiency of photosynthesis

2.4 Plant Types and Growing Cycles

2.5 Harvesting Plants for Bioenergy

2.6 Products

2.6.1 Gaseous products

2.6.2 Liquid products

2.6.3 Solid products

References

Chapter 3. Bioethanol: Market and Production Processes

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Global Market of Bioethanol and Future Prospects

3.3 Overall Process of Bioethanol Production

3.4 Production of Sugars from Raw Materials

3.4.1 Sugar solution from starchy materials

3.4.2 Acid hydrolysis of starch

3.4.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch

3.5 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Materials

3.5.1 Cellulose

3.5.2 Hemicellulose

3.5.3 Lignin

3.6 Sugar Solution from Lignocellulosic Materials

3.6.1 Chemical hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials

3.6.2 Pretreatment prior to enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials

3.6.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials

3.7 Basic Concepts of Fermentation

3.8 Conversion of Simple Sugars to Ethanol

3.9 Biochemical Basis of Ethanol Production from Hexoses

3.10 Chemical Basis of Ethanol Production from Pentoses

3.11 Microorganisms Related to Ethanol Fermentation

3.11.1 Yeasts

3.11.2 Bacteria

3.11.3 Filamentous fungi

3.12 Fermentation Process

3.12.1 Batch processes

3.12.2 Fed-batch processes

3.12.3 Continuous processes

3.12.4 Series-arranged continuous flow fermentation

3.12.5 Strategies for fermentation of enzymatic lignocellulosic hydrolyzates

3.12.6 Separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF)

3.12.7 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)

3.12.8 Comparison between enzymatic and acid hydrolysis for lignocellulosic materials

3.13 Ethanol Recovery

3.14 Distillation

3.15 Alternative Processes for Ethanol Recovery and Purification

3.16 Ethanol Dehydration

3.16.1 Molecular sieve adsorption

3.16.2 Membrane technology

3.17 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 4. Raw Materials to Produce Low-Cost Biodiesel

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Nonedible Oils

4.2.1 Bahapilu oil

4.2.2 Castor oil

4.2.3 Cottonseed oil

4.2.4 Cuphea oil

4.2.5 Jatropha curcas oil

4.2.6 Karanja seed oil

4.2.7 Linseed oil

4.2.8 Mahua oil

4.2.9 Nagchampa oil

4.2.10 Neem oil

4.2.11 Rubber seed oil

4.2.12 Tonka bean oil

4.3 Low-Cost Edible Oils

4.3.1 Cardoon oil

4.3.2 Ethiopian mustard oil

4.3.3 Gold-of-pleasure oil

4.3.4 Tigernut oil

4.4 Used Frying Oils

4.5 Animal Fats

4.6 Future Lines

4.6.1 Allanblackia oil

4.6.2 Bitter almond oil

4.6.3 Chaulmoogra oil

4.6.4 Papaya oil

4.6.5 Sal oil

4.6.6 Tung oil

4.6.7 Ucuuba oil

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5. Fuel and Physical Properties of Biodiesel Components

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Cetane Number and Exhaust Emissions

5.3 Cold-Flow Properties

5.4 Oxidative Stability

5.4.1 Iodine value

5.5 Viscosity

5.6 Lubricity

5.7 Outlook

References

Chapter 6. Processing of Vegetable Oils as Biodiesel and Engine Performance

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Processing of Vegetable Oils to Biodiesel

6.2.1 Degumming of vegetable oils

6.2.2 Transesterification of vegetable oils by acid or alkali

6.2.3 Enzymatic transesterification of vegetable oils

6.2.4 Engine performance with esters of vegetable oil

6.3 Engine Performance with Esters of Tallow and Frying Oil

References

Chapter 7. Ethanol and Methanol as Fuels in Internal Combustion Engines

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Alcohols as Substitute Fuels for IC Engines

7.2.1 Ethanol as an alternative fuel

7.2.2 Production of ethanol

7.3 Distillation of Alcohol

7.4 Properties of Ethanol and Methanol

7.5 Use of Blends

7.6 Performance of Engine Using Ethanol

7.7 Alcohols in CI Engine

7.7.1 Alcohol–diesel fuel solution

7.7.2 Alcohol–diesel fuel emulsions

7.7.3 Spark ignition

7.7.4 Ignition improvers

7.8 Methanol as an Alternate Fuel

7.8.1 Production of methanol

7.8.2 Emission

7.8.3 Fuel system and cold starting

7.8.4 Corrosion

7.8.5 Toxicity of methanol

7.8.6 Formaldehyde emission

7.9 Comparison of Ethanol and Methanol

7.10 Ecosystem Impacts Using Alcohol Fuels

7.10.1 Aquatic system impacts

7.10.2 Terrestrial system impacts

7.10.3 Occupational health impacts

7.10.4 Occupational safety impacts

7.10.5 Socioeconomic impacts

7.10.6 Transportation and infrastructure impacts

References

Chapter 8. Cracking of Lipids for Fuels and Chemicals

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Thermal Degradation Process

8.2.1 Catalytic cracking (CC)

8.3 Vegetable Oil Fuels/Hydrocarbon Blends

8.3.1 Refitting engines

8.3.2 Tailored conversion products

8.3.3 Feed component in FCC

8.4 Other Metal Oxide Catalysts

8.5 Cracking by In Situ Catalysts

8.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9. Fuel Cells

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Fuel Cell Basics

9.3 Types of Fuel Cells

9.3.1 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

9.3.2 Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs)

9.3.3 Alkaline-electrolyte fuel cells (AFCs)

9.3.4 Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs)

9.3.5 Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)

9.3.6 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)

9.3.7 Biofuel cells

9.4 Fuel Cell System

9.4.1 Fuel processor

9.4.2 Air management

9.4.3 Water management

9.4.4 Thermal management

9.4.5 Power-conditioning system

9.5 Fuel Cell Applications

9.6 Conclusion

References

Appendix

Index