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Desalination Engineering: Planning and Design
CITATION
Voutchkov, Nikolay
.
Desalination Engineering: Planning and Design
.
US
: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012.
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Desalination Engineering: Planning and Design
Authors:
Nikolay Voutchkov
Published:
December 2012
eISBN:
9780071777162 0071777164
|
ISBN:
9780071777155
Open eBook
Book Description
Table of Contents
Cover
About the Author
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Desalination Engineering: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Terminology
1.3 Overview of Desalination Technologies
1.4 Thermal Desalination
1.4.1 Overview
1.4.2 Multistage Flash Distillation
1.4.3 Multiple-Effect Distillation
1.4.4 Vapor Compression
1.5 Membrane Desalination
1.5.1 Overview
1.5.2 Electrodialysis
1.5.3 Reverse Osmosis
1.6 References
Chapter 2: Source Water Quality Characterization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Watershed Sanitary Survey
2.3 Assessment of the Pathogen Content of Source Water
2.4 Overview of Source Water Constituents
2.5 Minerals
2.5.1 Mineral Content of Seawater
2.5.2 Mineral Content of Brackish Water
2.6 Dissolved Gases
2.7 Particulate Membrane Foulants
2.7.1 Description
2.7.2 Parameters and Measurement Methods
2.7.3 Threshold Levels of Particulate Foulants
2.8 Colloidal Membrane Foulants
2.8.1 Description
2.8.2 Parameters and Measurement Methods
2.8.3 Threshold Levels of Colloidal Foulants
2.9 Mineral Membrane-Scaling Foulants
2.9.1 Description
2.9.2 Parameters and Measurement Methods
2.9.3 Threshold Levels of Mineral Foulants
2.10 Natural Organic Foulants
2.10.1 Description
2.10.2 Parameters and Measurement Methods
2.10.3 Threshold Levels of Organic Foulants
2.11 Microbial Foulants
2.11.1 Description
2.11.2 Parameters and Measurement Methods
2.11.3 Threshold Levels of Microbial Foulants
2.12 Combined Impacts of Various Types of Foulants
2.13 Membrane Fouling Diagnostics
2.13.1 Laboratory Autopsy of Biofouled Membranes
2.14 Water Quality Analysis for RO Desalination
2.15 References
Chapter 3: Fundamentals of Reverse Osmosis Desalination
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Structures, and Materials
3.2.1 Conventional Thin-Film Composite Membrane Structure
3.2.2 Thin-Film Nanocomposite Membrane Structure
3.2.3 Cellulose Acetate Membranes
3.2.4 Aromatic Polyamide Membranes
3.3 Spiral-Wound, Hollow-Fiber, and Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements
3.3.1 Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Elements
3.3.2 Hollow-Fiber RO Membrane Elements
3.3.3 Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements
3.4 Reverse Osmosis System—General Description
3.4.1 Configuration
3.4.2 Reverse Osmosis Process Parameters
3.5 Models for Water and Salt Transport through Membranes
3.5.1 Overview
3.5.2 Nonporous Solution-Diffusion Transport Model
3.6 Membrane Performance Factors and Considerations
3.6.1 Concentration Polarization
3.6.2 Membrane Fouling
3.6.3 Flux Distribution within Membrane Vessels
3.6.4 Effect of Salinity on Membrane Performance
3.6.5 Effect of Recovery on Membrane Performance
3.6.6 Effect of Temperature on Membrane Performance
3.6.7 Effect of Feed Pressure on Membrane Performance
3.6.8 Effect of Permeate Back Pressure on Membrane Performance
3.7 Key Membrane Desalination Plant Components
3.7.1 General Overview
3.7.2 Plant Intake
3.7.3 Pretreatment
3.7.4 Reverse Osmosis Separation System
3.7.5 Post-Treatment
3.7.6 Desalination Plant Discharge Management
3.8 References
Chapter 4: Planning Considerations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Plant Service Area, Capacity, and Site
4.2.1 Service Area
4.2.2 Plant Capacity
4.2.3 Plant Site
4.3 Intake Type and Location
4.3.1 Brackish Water Intake Planning Considerations
4.3.2 Seawater Intake Planning Considerations
4.4 Source Water Quality
4.5 Product Water Quality
4.5.1 Water Quality of SWRO Desalination Plants
4.5.2 Water Quality of BWRO Desalination Plants
4.5.3 Disinfection By-Products in Desalinated Water
4.5.4 Blending of Desalinated Water in the Distribution System
4.5.5 Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse Considerations
4.5.6 Selection of Target Product Water Quality
4.6 Plant Discharge
4.6.1 Concentrate
4.6.2 Spent Filter Backwash Water
4.6.3 Spent Membrane Cleaning Chemicals
4.7 Conceptual Plant Design
4.7.1 Scope
4.7.2 Selection of Key Treatment Processes
4.7.3 Equipment Selection
4.7.4 Treatment Process Validation and Optimization by Pilot Testing
4.7.5 Plant Configuration and Layout
4.7.6 Energy Use
4.7.7 Chemicals Used in Desalination Plants
4.8 Project Implementation Schedule and Phasing
4.8.1 Project Duration
4.8.2 Project Phasing
4.9 Project Economics
4.9.1 Effect of Plant Size on Project Costs
4.9.2 Concentrate Disposal and Plant Costs
4.9.3 Energy Use and Project Costs
4.9.4 Project Risks and Costs
4.10 Contractor Procurement for Project Implementation
4.10.1 Design-Bid-Build
4.10.2 Design-Build-Operate
4.10.3 Build-Own-Operate-Transfer
4.11 Project Funding
4.12 References
Chapter 5: Environmental Review and Permitting
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intakes—Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures
5.2.1 Open Intakes
5.2.2 Subsurface Intakes
5.3 Discharge—Environmental Challenges and Solutions
5.3.1 Salinity Increase beyond the Tolerance Thresholds of Aquatic Species
5.3.2 Concentration of Source Water Constituents to Harmful Levels
5.3.3 Discharge Discoloration and Low Oxygen Content
5.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Plant Operations
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Greenhouse Gas Emission Management
5.5 Traffic, Noise, and Other Auxiliary Impacts
5.6 Framework of Environmental Impact Assessment
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Project EIA Scoping
5.6.3 Project Definition
5.6.4 Environmental Analysis
5.6.5 Identification of Significant Environmental Impacts and Development of Mitigation Measures
5.7 Overview of the Desalination Project Permitting Process
5.8 Permits Related to Source Water Intake
5.8.1 Key Permitting Issues
5.8.2 Permitting Support Studies
5.9 Permits Related to Plant Discharge
5.9.1 Key Permitting Issues
5.9.2 Permitting Support Studies
5.10 Permits Related to Product Water
5.10.1 Key Permitting Issues
5.10.2 Permitting Support Studies
5.11 Other Permits
5.12 References
Chapter 6: Intakes for Source Water Collection
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Open Intakes
6.2.1 Types and Configurations
6.2.2 Selection of Open Intake Type
6.2.3 Selection of Open Intake Location
6.2.4 Minimization of Impingement and Entrainment Impacts
6.2.5 Design Considerations
6.2.6 Costs of Open Intakes
6.3 Subsurface Intakes
6.3.1 Types and Configurations
6.3.2 Design Considerations
6.3.3 Costs of Subsurface Intakes
6.4 References
Chapter 7: Intake Pump Stations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types and Configurations
7.2.1 Wet-Well Pump Stations
7.2.2 Dry-Well Pump Stations
7.2.3 Canned Pump Stations
7.3 Planning and Design Considerations
7.3.1 Pump Station Location
7.3.2 Pump Room Configuration
7.3.3 Inlet and Suction Well Configuration
7.3.4 Surge Analysis and Protection
7.3.5 Corrosion Protection
7.3.6 Water Quality Monitoring and Controls
7.4 Chemical Feed Systems
7.4.1 Sodium Hypochlorite Feed System
7.4.2 Sulfuric Acid Feed System
7.5 Intake Pump Station Construction Costs
7.6 References
Chapter 8: Source Water Screening
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Bar, Band, and Drum Screens
8.2.1 Coarse Bar Screens (Bar Racks)
8.2.2 Fine Screens
8.3 Microscreens
8.3.1 Types and Configurations
8.3.2 Design Example
8.3.3 Microscreen Costs
8.4 Cartridge Filters
8.4.1 Types and Configurations
8.4.2 Planning and Design Considerations
8.4.3 Design Example
8.4.4 Cartridge Filter System Costs
8.5 References
Chapter 9: Source Water Conditioning
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Coagulation
9.2.1 Types of Coagulation Chemicals and Feed Systems
9.2.2 Planning Considerations
9.2.3 Design Example
9.3 Flocculation
9.3.1 Types of Flocculation Chemicals and Feed Systems
9.3.2 Planning and Design Considerations
9.3.3 Design Example
9.4 Scale Inhibitors
9.4.1 Acids
9.4.2 Other Scale Inhibitors
9.5 Biocides
9.5.1 Sodium Hypochlorite
9.5.2 Chlorine Dioxide
9.5.3 Chloramines
9.5.4 Nonoxidizing Biocides
9.6 Dechlorination
9.7 Planning and Design Considerations for Source Water Conditioning
9.7.1 Properties of Commonly Used Source Water Conditioning Chemicals
9.7.2 Example Calculations
9.8 References
Chapter 10: Sand Removal, Sedimentation, and Dissolved Air Flotation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sand Removal Systems
10.2.1 Settling Canals and Retention Basins
10.2.2 Strainers
10.2.3 Cyclone Separators
10.3 Sedimentation Tanks
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Planning and Design Considerations
10.3.3 Design Example
10.4 Dissolved Air Flotation Clarifiers
10.4.1 Types and Configurations
10.4.2 Planning and Design Considerations
10.4.3 Design Example
10.5 Lamella Settler and DAF Clarifier Costs
10.6 References
Chapter 11: Pretreatment by Granular Media Filtration
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Filter Operation Cycle
11.2.1 Source Water Processing (Filtration)
11.2.2 Filter Media Backwash
11.3 Key Filtration System Components
11.3.1 Filter Cells
11.3.2 Filter Media
11.3.3 Media Support Layer and Filter Underdrain System
11.3.4 Service Facilities and Equipment
11.4 Filter Types and Configurations
11.4.1 Single-Medium and Dual- and Tri-Media Filters
11.4.2 Single- and Two-Stage Filters
11.4.3 Downflow and Upflow Filters
11.4.4 Filters Combined with Dissolved Air Flotation Clarifiers
11.4.5 Gravity and Pressure Filters
11.5 Filter Performance
11.5.1 Removal of Solids
11.5.2 Removal of Organics
11.5.3 Removal of Microorganisms
11.6 Source Water Pretreatment Prior to Granular Media Filtration
11.7 Planning and Design Considerations
11.7.1 Single-Stage Dual-Media Filters
11.7.2 Two-Stage Filters
11.7.3 Design Examples
11.8 Pretreatment System Costs
11.9 References
Chapter 12: Pretreatment by Membrane Filtration
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Filtration Process
12.2.1 Processing (Filtration)
12.2.2 Backwash
12.2.3 Cleaning
12.2.4 Integrity Testing
12.3 Key Filtration System Components
12.3.1 Filter Vessels and Modules
12.3.2 Membrane Filtration Media
12.3.3 Service Facilities and Equipment
12.4 Filter Types and Configurations
12.4.1 Pressurized Membrane Systems
12.4.2 Submerged Membrane Systems
12.4.3 Comparison of Pressurized and Submerged Systems
12.5 Filter Performance
12.5.1 Removal of Solids
12.5.2 Removal of Organics
12.5.3 Removal of Microorganisms
12.6 Planning and Design Considerations
12.6.1 Source Water Turbidity
12.6.2 Source Water Organic Content
12.6.3 Source Water Temperature
12.7 Overview of Membrane Products Used for Saline Water Pretreatment
12.7.1 Norit (Pentair X-Flow)
12.7.2 Memcor (Siemens)
12.7.3 Hydranautics
12.7.4 GE Zenon
12.7.5 Other UF and MF Membrane Products
12.8 Design Examples
12.8.1 Submerged UF Pretreatment System
12.8.2 Pressure-Driven UF Pretreatment System
12.9 Pretreatment System Costs
12.10 References
Chapter 13: Comparison of Granular Media and Membrane Pretreatment
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Effect of Source Water Quality on Performance
13.3 Surface Area Requirements
13.4 Quantity and Quality of Generated Residuals
13.5 Chemical Use
13.6 Power Use
13.7 Economy of Scale
13.8 Filtration Media Replacement Costs
13.9 Commoditization
13.10 Water Production Costs
13.11 Guidelines for Selecting a Pretreatment System
13.12 References
Chapter 14: Reverse Osmosis Separation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Filtered Water Transfer Pumps
14.3 High-Pressure Feed Pumps
14.3.1 Overview
14.3.2 Types of High-Pressure Pumps
14.4 Spiral-Wound Polyamide Membrane Elements
14.4.1 Overview
14.4.2 Nanofiltration (Water Softening) Elements
14.4.3 Brackish Water Desalination Elements
14.4.4 Seawater Desalination Elements
14.5 Pressure Vessels
14.5.1 Description
14.5.2 Membrane Vessel Classification
14.5.3 Alternative Membrane Configurations within the Vessels
14.6 RO System Piping
14.7 RO Skids and Trains
14.8 Energy Recovery Systems
14.8.1 Overview
14.8.2 Centrifugal Energy-Recovery Systems
14.8.3 Isobaric Energy Recovery Systems
14.9 Membrane Flushing and Cleaning Systems
14.9.1 Membrane Flushing System
14.9.2 Membrane Cleaning System
14.10 Instrumentation and Controls
14.10.1 Overview
14.10.2 SCADA System
14.10.3 Plant Monitoring and Control
14.10.4 Instrumentation
14.11 RO System Types and Configurations
14.11.1 Overview
14.11.2 NF System Configurations
14.11.3 BWRO System Configurations
14.11.4 Seawater System Configurations
14.12 Planning and Design Considerations
14.12.1 General Design Methodology
14.12.2 Design Example: BWRO System
14.12.3 Design Example: SWRO System
14.13 RO System Desalination Costs
14.14 Desalination Systems with Large-Diameter RO Membranes
14.14.1 Large RO Membranes: Commercial Products
14.14.2 Key Features of Large RO Elements and Systems
14.15 References
Chapter 15: Post-Treatment of Desalinated Water
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Remineralization for Corrosion Protection
15.1.2 Mineral Supplementation
15.1.3 Disinfection
15.1.4 Water Quality Polishing
15.1.5 General Product Water Quality Guidelines
15.1.6 Overview of Typical Post-Treatment System
15.2 Remineralization Systems
15.2.1 Remineralization by Chemical Addition
15.2.2 Remineralization by Mixing of Desalinated and Source Waters
15.2.3 Remineralization by Dissolving Minerals in Desalinated Water
15.3 Design Considerations for Lime Feed Systems
15.3.1 Key Design Criteria
15.3.2 Design and Operational Issues
15.4 Design Considerations for Carbon Dioxide Feed Systems
15.4.1 Key Design Criteria
15.4.2 Design and Operational Issues
15.5 Design Considerations for Limestone (Calcite) Contactors
15.5.1 Calcite Contactor Configuration
15.5.2 Design and Operational Issues
15.5.3 Calcite Beds with Continuous Feed
15.6 Impact of Remineralization on Product Water Quality
15.7 Design Examples
15.7.1 Example of Lime–Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System
15.7.2 Example of Calcite–Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System
15.8 Remineralization Costs
15.8.1 Overview of Construction Costs
15.8.2 Example Cost Estimate of Lime–Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System
15.8.3 Example Cost Estimate of Calcite–Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System
15.8.4 Costs of Remineralization Chemicals
15.9 Disinfection Systems
15.9.1 Chlorination
15.9.2 Chloramination
15.9.3 Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection
15.9.4 Ozonation
15.9.5 Ultraviolet Light Disinfection
15.9.6 Disinfection Byproducts Formation and Control
15.9.7 Chlorine Residual Stability and Product Water Quality
15.9.8 Design of Disinfection Systems
15.9.9 Disinfection System Costs
15.10 References
Chapter 16: Desalination Plant Discharge Management
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Desalination Plant Discharge Characterization
16.2.1 Desalination Process Side Streams
16.2.2 Concentrate
16.2.3 Backwash Water
16.2.4 Membrane Flush Water
16.3 Surface Water Discharge of Concentrate
16.3.1 New Surface Water Discharge
16.3.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.3.3 Concentrate Treatment Prior to Surface Water Discharge
16.3.4 Design Guidelines for Surface Water Discharges
16.3.5 Costs for New Surface Water Discharge
16.3.6 Case Studies of New Surface Water Discharges
16.3.7 Co-Disposal with Wastewater Effluent
16.3.8 Co-disposal with Power Plant Cooling Water
16.4 Discharge to Sanitary Sewer
16.4.1 Description
16.4.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.4.3 Effect on Sanitary Sewer Operations
16.4.4 Impact on Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations
16.4.5 Effect on Water Reuse
16.4.6 Design and Configuration Guidelines
16.4.7 Costs for Sanitary Sewer Discharge
16.5 Deep Well Injection
16.5.1 Description
16.5.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.5.3 Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment
16.5.4 Design and Configuration Guidelines
16.5.5 Injection Well Costs
16.6 Land Application
16.6.1 Description
16.6.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.6.3 Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment
16.6.4 Design and Configuration Guidelines
16.6.5 Land Application Costs
16.7 Evaporation Ponds
16.7.1 Description
16.7.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.7.3 Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment
16.7.4 Design and Configuration Guidelines
16.7.5 Evaporation Pond Costs
16.8 Zero Liquid Discharge Concentrate Disposal Systems
16.8.1 Description
16.8.2 Potential Environmental Impacts
16.8.3 Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment
16.8.4 Design and Configuration Guidelines
16.8.5 Zero Liquid Discharge Costs
16.9 Beneficial Use of Concentrate
16.9.1 Technology Overview
16.9.2 Feasibility of Beneficial Reuse
16.10 Regional Concentrate Management
16.10.1 Types of Regional Concentrate Management Systems
16.10.2 Use of Brackish Water Concentrate in SWRO Plants
16.11 Nonconcentrate Side Stream Management
16.11.1 Backwash Water
16.11.2 Membrane Flush Water
16.12 Comparison of Concentrate Management Alternatives
16.12.1 Selection of Concentrate Management Approach
16.12.2 Costs
16.12.3 Environmental Impacts
16.12.4 Regulatory Acceptance
16.12.5 Ease of Implementation
16.12.6 Site Footprint
16.12.7 Reliability and Operational Constraints
16.12.8 Energy Use
16.13 References
Chapter 17: Desalination Project Cost Estimates
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Overview of Water Production Costs
17.2.1 Cost of Water Produced by BWRO Desalination Plants
17.2.2 Cost of Water Produced by SWRO Desalination Plants
17.3 Capital Cost Estimates
17.3.1 Capital Cost Breakdown for BWRO Desalination Projects
17.3.2 Capital Costs Breakdown for SWRO Desalination Projects
17.3.3 Direct Capital (Construction) Costs
17.3.4 Indirect Capital Costs
17.4 Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Cost Estimates
17.4.1 O&M Cost Breakdown for BWRO Desalination Plants
17.4.2 O&M Cost Breakdown for SWRO Desalination Plants
17.4.3 Power Costs
17.4.4 Chemical Costs
17.4.5 Labor Costs
17.4.6 Maintenance Costs
17.4.7 Membrane and Cartridge Filter Replacement Costs
17.4.8 Plant Waste Stream Disposal Costs
17.4.9 Environmental and Performance Monitoring Costs
17.4.10 Indirect O&M Costs
17.5 Water Production Cost Estimate
17.5.1 Fixed Cost Components
17.5.2 Variable Cost Components
17.6 Example Cost Estimate
17.6.1 Project Description
17.6.2 Capital Costs
17.6.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs
17.6.4 Water Production Cost
17.7 References
Glossary
Index
