Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 2/E

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Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 2/E

Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 2/E

Authors: Pierre Roberge

Published: June 2012

eISBN: 9780071750387 007175038X | ISBN: 9780071750370

Handbook of Corrosion Engineering

About the Author

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 The Study of Corrosion

1.2 Visualizing Corrosion Cells

1.3 A Simple Corrosion Model

1.3.1 Anodic Processes

1.3.2 Cathodic Processes

1.3.3 Faraday’s Law

1.4 So, What is Corrosion?

1.5 Strategic Impact and Cost of Corosion Damage

References

Chapter 2: Environments

2.1 Atmospheric Corosion

2.1.1 Outdoor Atmospheres

2.1.2 Indoor Atmospheres

2.1.3 Atmospheric Corrosivity Factors and their Measurement

Relative Humidity (RH), Dewpoint, and Time of Wetness (TOW)

Aerosol Particles

Pollutants

Atmospheric Corrosivity

2.1.4 Maps of Atmospheric Corrosivity

2.1.5 Prevention and Control

Materials Selection

Dehumidification

2.2 Corosion in Water

2.2.1 Corrosion and Water Quality/Availability

Corrosion Impact

Corrosion Management

Condition Assessment Techniques

2.2.2 Types of Water

Natural Waters

Treated Waters

2.2.3 Cooling Water Systems

Once-Through Systems

Closed Recirculated Systems

Open Recirculated Systems

Heat Exchangers

2.2.4 Steam-Generating Systems

Treatment of Boiler Feedwater Makeup

Fossil Fuel Steam Plants

Supercritical Steam Plants

Waste Heat Boilers

Nuclear Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)

Nuclear Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs)

Corrosion Costs to the Power Industry

2.2.5 Water Treatment

Corrosion Inhibitors

Scale Control

Microorganisms

Types of Ion Exchange Resins

2.2.6 Scaling Indices

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

Other Indices

2.3 Corosion in Seawater

2.3.1 Salinity

2.3.2 Oxygen

2.3.3 Organic Compounds

2.3.4 Polluted Seawater

2.3.5 Calcareous Deposits

Calculation Examples

2.3.6 Corrosion Resistance of Materials in Seawater

Carbon Steel

Stainless Steels

Nickel-Based Alloys

Copper-Based Alloys

Effect of Flow Velocity

Effect of Temperature

2.4 Corosion in Soils

2.4.1 Soil Classification

2.4.2 Soil Parameters Affecting Corrosivity

2.4.3 Soil Corrosivity Classifications

2.4.4 Soil Corrosion Cells

Galvanic Corrosion

Concentration Cells

Oxygen Concentration Cells

Temperature Cells

Stray Currents

Stress Cells

Surface Film Cells

2.4.5 Auxiliary Effects of Corrosion Cells

Hydrogen

Electroendosmosis

Cathode Scale

Pitting

2.4.6 Examples of Buried Systems

Pipelines

Distribution Systems

Gathering Systems

Plant Piping

Well Casings

Underground Tanks

Steel Piling

Transmission and Communication Towers

2.4.7 Corrosion of Materials Other Than Steel

Cast Iron

Aluminum

Zinc

Lead

Stainless Steels

Copper and Alloys

Concrete

Polymeric Materials

2.5 Reinforced Concrete

2.5.1 Degradation of Reinforced Concrete

Corrosion Damage

Chloride Attack

Carbonation-Induced Corrosion

Synergy between Chlorides and Carbonation Attack

2.5.2 Remedial Measures

Repair Techniques

Electrochemical Techniques

New Construction—Rebar Options

Corrosion Inhibitors

Concrete Cover and Mix Design

2.5.3 Condition Assessment of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Electrochemical Corrosion Measurements

Chloride Content

Petrographic Examination

Permeability Tests

2.5.4 Other Forms of Concrete Degradation

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Freeze-Thaw Damage

Sulfate Attack

2.6 Microbes and Biofouling

2.6.1 Examples of Microbial Corrosion

2.6.2 Nature of Biofilms

2.6.3 Biofilm Formation and Growth

2.6.4 Marine Biofouling

2.6.5 Problems Associated with Biofilms

Friction Factor

Heat Exchange

2.6.6 Biocorrosion Mechanisms

2.6.7 Microbes Classification

Fungi

Algae

Bacteria

2.6.8 Monitoring Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion

Sampling

Biological Assessment

Monitoring MIC Effects

2.6.9 Biofilm Control

Biocides

A Practical Example: Ozone Treatment for Cooling Towers

References

Chapter 3: High-Temperature Corrosion

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Thermodynamic Principles

3.2.1 Standard Free Energy of Formation

3.2.2 Vapor Species Diagrams

3.2.3 2D Isothermal Stability Diagrams

3.3 Kinetic Principles

3.3.1 Scale as a Diffusion Barrier

3.3.2 Basic Kinetic Models

Linear Behavior

Logarithmic Behavior

Parabolic Behavior

3.3.3 Pilling-Bedworth Ratio

3.4 Practical High-Temperature Corrosion Problems

3.4.1 Oxidation

3.4.2 Sulfidation

3.4.3 Carburization

3.4.4 Metal Dusting

3.4.5 Nitridation

3.4.6 Gaseous Halogen Corrosion

3.4.7 Fuel Ash and Salt Deposits

3.4.8 Corrosion by Molten Salts

3.4.9 Corrosion in Liquid Metals

References

Chapter 4: Modeling, Life Prediction, and Computer Applications

4.1 Models, Computers, and Corosion

4.2 Historical Notes

4.3 Improvement in Computer and Comunication Technologies

4.4 The Botom-Up Approach

4.4.1 Mechanistic Models

Pollutant Mass Transfer to a Surface

Marine Aerosol Transport

Corrosion Under a Droplet

Wind Speed Factor

Ion Association Model

4.4.2 Probabilistic Models

Normal Distribution

Log-Normal Distribution

Exponential Distribution

Poisson Distribution

Extreme Value Statistics

Failure of Nuclear Waste Containers

ISO CORRAG

International Cooperative Program on Effects on Materials

Iberoamerican Atmospheric Corrosion Map Project (MICAT)

Topographical Effects on Wind Velocity

4.5 Top-Down Corosion Models

4.5.1 Corrosion Management Framework

Clear Policies and Objectives

Organizational Structure and Responsibilities

Planning, Procedures, and Implementation

Monitoring and Measuring Performance

Review Performance

Audits

4.5.2 Risk-Based Models

4.5.3 Knowledge-Based Models

Expert Systems

Neural Networks

Case-Based Reasoning

4.6 Internet, the Web, and Corosion

4.6.1 Online Resources

Corrosion-Related Glossaries

Corrosion Guides

Special Reports

List Servers

4.6.2 Online Training or Learning

A Taxonomy for Online Education

Examples of CBL Corrosion Courses

References

Chapter 5: Corrosion Failures

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Mechanisms and Forms of Corosion Failures

5.2.1 General or Uniform Attack

5.2.2 Localized Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion

Crevice Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion

Deposition Corrosion

Dealloying

Intergranular Corrosion (IGC)

Exfoliation

Hydrogen Embrittlement

Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HIC)

Hydrogen Blistering

5.2.3 Flow-Induced Corrosion

Fluid Velocity Effects

Erosion-Corrosion and FAC

Cavitation

Solid Particle Impingement

5.2.4 Mechanically Assisted Corrosion

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Corrosion Fatigue

Fretting Corrosion

5.3 Investigating Corosion Failures

5.3.1 Guides for Investigating Corrosion Failures

5.3.2 Conducting a Failure Analysis

Planning the Analysis

Conditions at the Failure Site

Operating Conditions at Time of Failure

Historical Information

Sampling

Evaluation of Samples

Assessment of Corrosion-Related Failure

References

Chapter 6: Corosion Maintenance through Inspection and Monitoring

6.1 The Cost of Poor Maintenance

6.2 Corosion Management Strategies

6.3 Maintenance Strategies

6.3.1 Corrective Maintenance

6.3.2 Preventive Maintenance

6.3.3 Predictive or Condition-Based Maintenance

6.3.4 Reliability-Centered Maintenance

6.4 Life-Cycle Asset Management

6.5 Inspection Strategies

6.5.1 What to Inspect?

Anticipated Failures (“Hot Spots”)

Corrosion-Based Design Analysis (CBDA)

6.5.2 When to Inspect?—Key Performance Indicators

Cost of Corrosion KPI

Completed Maintenance KPI

Selecting KPIs

6.5.3 Corrosion Monitoring or Corrosion Inspection?

6.5.4 Risk-Based Inspection

Probability of Failure Assessment

Consequence of Failure Assessment

Application of RBI

6.5.5 Risk-Assessment Methodologies

HAZOP

FMEA and FMECA

Risk Matrix Methods

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

Event Tree Analysis (ETA)

6.6 Industrial Examples

6.6.1 Transmission Pipelines

External Corrosion Damage Assessment (ECDA)

Internal Corrosion Damage Assessment (ICDA)

Hydrostatic Testing

In-line Inspection (ILI)

6.6.2 Offshore Pipeline—Risers

6.6.3 Process Industry

6.6.4 Power Industry

Corrosion Product Activation and Deposition

Pressurized Water Reactor Steam Generator Tube Corrosion

Boiler Tube Waterside/Steamside Corrosion

Heat Exchanger Corrosion

SCC and CF in Turbines

Fuel Cladding Corrosion

Corrosion in Electric Generators

Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

Corrosion of Raw Water Piping

IGSCC of BWR Piping and Internals

6.6.5 The RIMAP Project

Process Industry

Offshore Industry

Power Industry

6.6.6 Aircraft Maintenance

Corrosion Definition

Maintenance Schedule

Corrosion Management Assessment

Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) System

6.7 What is Corosion Monitoring?

6.8 Corosion-monitoring techniques

6.8.1 Direct Intrusive Techniques

Physical Techniques

Electrochemical Techniques

6.8.2 Direct Nonintrusive Techniques

Thin Layer Activation (TLA) and Gamma Radiography

Field Signature Method (FSM)

Acoustic Emission (AE)

6.8.3 Indirect Online Techniques

Hydrogen Monitoring

Corrosion Potential

Online Water Chemistry Analyses

Process Variables

Fouling

6.8.4 Indirect Off-line Measurement Techniques

Off-line Water Chemistry Parameters

Residual Inhibitor

Chemical Analysis of Process Samples

6.9 Corosion-Monitoring Locations

6.10 Corosion-Monitoring Systems

6.11 Integration in Proces Control

6.12 Modeling the Corosion-Monitoring Response

6.13 Probe Design and Selection

6.13.1 Sensitivity and Response Time

6.13.2 Flush-Mounted Electrode Design

6.13.3 Protruding Electrode Design

6.13.4 Probes to Suit the Application

Stress Corrosion Cracking Probe

Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Environments

Coupled Multielectrode Array Systems and Sensors

6.14 Data Comunication and Analysis Requirements

References

Chapter 7: Corosion Testing

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Laboratory-Controled Tests

7.2.1 Tests of the Metal

7.2.2 Tests of Fabricated Items

7.3 Field Tests

7.4 Test Objectives

7.5 Procurement of Test Materials

7.5.1 Commercial Alloys

7.5.2 Nonstandard Alloys

7.5.3 Metal Form

7.6 Specimen Preparation

7.6.1 Size and Shape

Visual Examination

Depth of Attack

Weight Loss or Gain

Loss in Tensile Properties

Stress Corrosion Cracking Tests

Corrosivity of the Test Environment

Suitability to Other Test Purposes

7.6.2 Specimen Identification

7.6.3 Replicate Specimens

7.6.4 Machining of Specimens

7.6.5 Simulated Machining of Specimens

7.6.6 Degreasing and Final Measurements

7.7 Controls

7.7.1 Control of the Metal

7.7.2 Control of the Test Environment

7.8 Specimen Arrangement for Corosion Tests

7.9 Effects of Variables

7.9.1 Temperature

7.9.2 Solution Concentration

7.9.3 Agitation

7.9.4 Aeration

7.9.5 Ultraviolet Light

7.9.6 Microbial Effects

7.10 Conducting the Test

7.10.1 Records

7.10.2 Interim Inspections

7.10.3 The Unexpected

7.10.4 Concluding the Test

7.11 PostTest Appraisals

7.11.1 Before Cleaning

7.11.2 Analyses of Products and Solutions

7.11.3 Cleaning the Specimens

7.11.4 Weighing

Sample Calculation

7.11.5 Visual Examination

7.11.6 Photographs

7.11.7 Mechanical and Physical Tests

7.11.8 Microscopic Studies

7.11.9 The Notebook

7.12 Electrochemical Test Methods

7.12.1 DC Polarization Test Methods

Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR)

Complications with Polarization Methods

7.12.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

7.12.3 Electrochemical Noise

Electrode Configuration

Signal Analysis

7.12.4 Harmonic Distortion Analysis

7.12.5 Zero-Resistance Ammetry

7.13 Accelerated Test Environments

7.13.1 Cabinet Tests

Controlled-Humidity Test

Corrosive Gas Test

Salt Spray Testing

7.13.2 Immersion Testing

Simple Immersion Tests

Alternative Immersion Tests

Immersion Tests Under Load

7.13.3 Flow-Induced Corrosion Testing

Mass-Transfer Coefficient

Rotating Systems

Flow Systems

7.13.4 High-Temperature/High-Pressure Testing

Static Tests

Refreshed and Recirculating Tests

Factors Affecting HT/HP Test Environments

Special HT/HP Corrosion Test Conditions

7.14 Surface Characterization Techniques

7.14.1 General Sensitivity Problems

7.14.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy

7.14.3 Photoelectron Spectroscopy

7.14.4 Rutherford Backscattering

7.14.5 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM/AFM)

7.14.6 SAM and SEM

SEM

SAM

7.14.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy

References

Chapter 8: Engineering Materials: Selection and Design Considerations

8.1 Materials Selection

8.2 Corrosion-Aware Materials Selection

8.2.1 Why Metals Corrode?

8.2.2 How Metals Corrode?

8.2.3 Multiple Material/Environment Combinations

8.2.4 Precision of Corrosion Data

8.2.5 Complexity of Materials/Performance Interactions

8.3 Selection Compromises

8.3.1 Life-Cycle Costing

8.3.2 Condition Assessment

8.3.3 Prioritization

8.4 Materials Selection Road Map

8.4.1 Identify Initial Slate of Candidate Materials

8.4.2 Screen Materials Based on Past Experience

8.4.3 Conduct Environmental Assessment

8.4.4 Evaluate Materials Based on Potential Corrosion Failure Modes

8.4.5 Select Corrosion Prevention and Control Methods

8.5 Basics of Metalurgy

8.5.1 Alloying

Phase Diagrams

Castings

8.5.2 Heat Treatment of Metals

Annealing

Hardening Heat Treatments

Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steel

Welding

8.5.3 Metallurgical Principles of Corrosion Prevention

High-Purity Metals

Alloy Additions

Heat Treatment

Metallurgical History and Corrosion

8.6 Engineering Materials

8.6.1 Aluminum and Its Alloys

Production of Aluminum

Mechanical Properties

Cast Aluminum

Wrought Aluminum

Special Aluminum Products

Temper Designation System for Aluminum Alloys

Applications

Weldability of Aluminum Alloys

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.2 Cadmium

8.6.3 Cast Irons

Carbon Presence Classification

Weldability

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.4 Copper and Its Alloys

Weldability

Corrosion Resistance

Marine Application of Copper-Nickel Alloys

Decorative Corrosion Products

8.6.5 High-Performance Alloys

Ni- and Fe-Ni-Base Alloys

Co-Base Alloys

Welding and Heat Treatments

Corrosion Resistance

Use of High-Performance Alloys

8.6.6 Lead and Its Alloys

8.6.7 Magnesium and Its Alloys

Magnesium Alloys

Processing and Properties

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.8 Noble Metals

Gold

Platinum

Silver

8.6.9 Refractory Metals

Molybdenum

Niobium

Tantalum

Tungsten

8.6.10 Stainless Steels

Types of Stainless Steels

Welding, Heat Treatments, and Surface Finishes

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.11 Steels

Carbon Steels

High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels

Weldability

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.12 Tin and Tinplate

8.6.13 Titanium and Its Alloys

Basic Properties

Titanium Alloys

Weldability

Applications

Corrosion Resistance

8.6.14 Zinc and Its Alloys

8.6.15 Zirconium

Applications

Corrosion Resistance

8.7 Design Considerations

8.7.1 Designing Adequate Drainage

8.7.2 Adequate Joining and Attachments

References

Chapter 9: Protective Coatings

9.1 Types of Coatings

9.2 Why Coatings Fail?

9.3 Soluble Salts and Coating Failures

9.4 Economic Aspects of Coatings Selection and Maintenance

9.5 Organic Coatings

9.5.1 Coating Functionality

9.5.2 Basic Components

Binders

Pigments

Solvents

9.5.3 Temporary Preservatives

9.5.4 Nonstick Coatings

9.6 Inorganic (Nonmetallic) Coatings

9.6.1 Hydraulic Cement

9.6.2 Ceramics and Glass

9.6.3 Anodizing

Anodizing Process

Properties of the Oxide Film

Sealing of Anodic Coatings

9.6.4 Phosphatizing

9.6.5 Chromate Filming

9.6.6 Nitriding

9.6.7 Passive Films

9.6.8 Pack Cementation

9.7 Metallic Coatings

9.7.1 Electroplating

9.7.2 Electroless Plating

9.7.3 Hot-Dip Galvanizing

9.7.4 Cladding

9.7.5 Metalizing (Thermal Spray)

9.8 Coating Inspection and Testing

9.8.1 Condition of the Substrate

9.8.2 Condition of the Existing Coating System

9.8.3 Coating Inspection

9.8.4 Laboratory Testing

9.8.5 Holiday Detection

9.9 Surface Preparation

9.9.1 Principles of Coating Adhesion

9.9.2 Abrasive Cleaning

9.9.3 Water Jetting

9.9.4 Wet Abrasive Blasting

9.9.5 Other Surface Preparation Methods

References

Chapter 10: Corosion Inhibitors

10.1 Basic Concepts

10.1.1 Inhibitor Efficiency

10.1.2 Inhibitor Availability

10.1.3 Inhibitor Risk Categories

10.1.4 Environmental Issues

Bioaccumulation

Biodegradation

Aquatic Toxicity

Selection of an Inhibitor for Environmental Compliance

10.2 Types of Inhibitors

10.2.1 Immersion Inhibitors

Anodic Passivating Inhibitors

Cathodic Inhibitors

Ohmic Inhibitors

Organic Inhibitors

Precipitation Inhibitors

10.2.2 Atmospheric Inhibitors

Vapor-Phase Inhibitors

Corrosion Prevention Compounds

10.3 Environmental Factors

10.3.1 Aqueous Systems

Effects of Various Dissolved Species

Waters of Low-to-Moderate Salt Concentrations

High Salt Concentrations

Effects of pH

10.3.2 Strong Acids

Adsorption of Corrosion Inhibitors onto Metals

Effects of Inhibitors on Corrosion Processes

10.3.3 Near-Neutral Environments

10.3.4 Nonaqueous Systems

10.3.5 Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Systems

Sweet Corrosion

Sour Corrosion

Acidizing

Oxygen-lnfluenced Corrosion

Application Methods

10.3.6 Gaseous Environments

The Open Atmosphere

Closed Vapor Spaces

10.3.7 Effect of Elevated Temperatures

10.4 Green Inhibitors

10.4.1 Scale Inhibitors

10.4.2 Corrosion Inhibitors

Inorganic Corrosion Inhibitors

Organic Corrosion Inhibitors

10.5 Application Techniques

10.5.1 Continuous Injection

10.5.2 Batch Treatment

10.5.3 Squeeze Treatment

10.5.4 Volatilization

10.5.5 Coatings

10.5.6 System Condition

10.5.7 Inhibitor Selection

10.5.8 Concentration and Performance

10.6 Safety Precautions

10.6.1 Handling

10.6.2 Disposal

10.6.3 Heat Transfer

10.6.4 Foaming

10.6.5 Emulsions

References

Chapter 11: Cathodic Protection

11.1 Cathodic Protection Historical Notes

11.2 How CP Works in Water?

11.2.1 Sacrificial CP

11.2.2 Impressed Current CP

11.3 How CP Works in Soils?

11.3.1 Sacrificial CP

11.3.2 Impressed Current CP

11.3.3 Anode Beds

11.3.4 Anode Backfill

11.4 How CP Works in Concrete?

11.4.1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

11.4.2 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection

11.5 Cathodic Protection Components

11.5.1 Reference Electrodes

11.5.2 Anodes

Sacrificial Anodes

ICCP Anodes

11.5.3 Rectified Current Sources

11.5.4 Other Current Sources

11.5.5 Wires and Cables

11.6 Soil Resistivity Measurements

11.6.1 Four-Pin Method (Wenner Method)

11.6.2 Alternate Soil Resistivity Methods

11.7 Potential to Environment

11.8 Current Requirement Tests

11.8.1 Tests for a Coated System

11.8.2 Tests for a Bare Structure

11.9 Stray Current Effects

11.10 Monitoring Pipeline CP Systems

11.10.1 Close Interval Potential Surveys

11.10.2 Pearson Survey

11.10.3 Direct and Alternating Current Voltage Gradient Surveys

11.10.4 Corrosion Coupons

11.11 Simulation and Optimization of CP Designs

11.11.1 Modeling Ship ICCP

11.11.2 Modeling CP in the Presence of Interference

References

Chapter 12: Anodic Protection

12.1 Basic Concepts

12.2 Passivity of Metals

12.3 Equipment Required for Anodic Protection

12.3.1 Cathode

12.3.2 Reference Electrode

12.3.3 Potential Control and Power Supply

12.4 Design Concerns

12.5 Applications

12.6 Practical Example: Anodic Protection in the Pulp and Paper Industry

References

Appendix A: Periodic Table

Appendix B: SI Units Conversion Table

Appendix C: Reference Electrodes

C.1 Purpose of a Reference Electrode

C.1.1 Conversion between Reference Electrodes

C.1.2 Silver/Silver Chloride Reference Electrode

C.1.3 Copper/Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode

References

Appendix D: Chemical Compositions of Engineering Alloys

Appendix E: Historical Perspective

References

Index